북한의 핵실험 선언으로 가장 타격을 받은 나라는 당연히 미국이다. 미국은 북한이 핵실험을 하지 못하도록 처음부터 막을 것이라고 말해 왔었다.
클린턴 미 행정부는 핵무기를 개발하지 않을 것이라는 불확실한 약속을 대가로 북한에 안전 보장과 일정 수준의 평화적 핵 활동을 지원하는 협상을 벌였다. 부시 행정부는 협상을 일축하고 북한을 모욕하며 헛된 위협만 남발했다.
그러나 이 모두가 결국 핵확산 방지 실패에 일조했을 뿐이다. 1968년 핵무기 보유국가로 공식 인정받은 5개 국(미국, 러시아, 중국, 영국, 프랑스)이 핵확산금지조약(NPT)의 4조 규정에 따라 자신들의 핵무기를 감축하고 궁극적으로 이를 폐기하는 일에 나서지 않는 한 핵확산 방지는 실패로 끝날 수밖에 없다. 핵무기를 계속 보유, 개선하면서도 NPT가 존속되기를 기대하는 것은 불가능하다는 것을 북한 핵실험이 보여주었다.
이제 이스라엘과 인도, 파키스탄에 이어 북한까지 비공식 핵 보유국가로 가담하게 된 상황에서 5개 국가만 핵무기를 보유하도록 한 체제가 유지되는 것은 불가능하다. 세계는 이제 기존의 핵 보유국가로 위협받고 있다고 생각하는 나라는 핵무기 조달에 나서는 상황으로 바뀌었다.
궁극적으로 핵무기를 제거하겠다는 5개 핵 보유국가의 약속은 결코 실현되지 않았다. 어떤 나라도 이 같은 약속을 지키지 않았다. 미국 역시 마찬가지다. 이는 NPT의 효용성과 적절성에 의문을 던져준다. 심지어 북한은 2003년 1월 조지 W 부시 미 대통령이 북한을 비난하자 NPT로부터 공식 탈퇴하기까지 했다.
북한의 핵실험과 이란의 핵무기 개발설은 미국이 자신들을 침공, 체제 변화를 시도할 것이라는 위협에 따른 반응이다. 작고 상대적으로 약한 나라들에 있어 핵무기가 갖는 유일한 효용 가치는 보다 강한 나라의 침공과 개입을 막아주는 억지력으로 작용할 수 있다는 것이다.
실제로는 핵무기가 이러한 억지력으로 작용하지 못할 수도 있다. 핵무기는 예측 불가능성과 불확실성을 바탕으로 억지력으로 작용하는데 만약 상대방이 무자비할 경우 오히려 공멸을 부를 수도 있다. 공격국은 먼저 상대국이 대규모 반격에 나설 충분한 핵 대응력을 갖추고 있는지를 심사숙고해야 할 것이다.
반면 보다 강력한 핵전력을 갖췄다 하더라도 상대국의 반격으로 자국 국민이나 병력의 피해가 불가피하다고 판단될 경우 핵 위협을 중단할 수도 있다. 국제사회의 여론도 감안해야 한다. 미국이 핵전력이 아닌 재래 전력만으로 북한을 공격하더라도 북한이 핵무기로 한국을 공격한다면 누가 어떤 이득을 얻을 수 있겠는가.
버나드 브로디와 알베르트 볼스테터, 허만 칸 등 과학자들이 이미 1950년대와 1960년대에 핵무기를 이용해 국가적 목표를 이룰 수 있는 방안 등을 연구했지만 이는 실패로 끝나고 말았다.
적국이 핵무기를 갖고 있을 경우 공격 전략이 아무리 뛰어나다 해도 실패했을 경우나 적의 보복 공격이 가져올 위험부담은 받아들일 수 없을 만큼 크다. 따라서 북한이나 이란 같은 나라들에 있어 핵무기가 억지력으로 작용할 수 있다면 오히려 다행일 것이다. 북한이나 이란이 원하는 것이 바로 이런 억지력이다.
미국과 이스라엘은 핵 위협이나 테러리스트들에게로의 핵 확산을 들어 이란과의 전쟁을 얘기하고 있지만 이는 심각한 것이 아니다. 이란이나 북한은 현재로선 위협을 실행에 옮길 2차 공격력을 갖고 있지 못하기 때문이다.
테러리스트들의 핵무기 입수 우려에 대해서도 세계는 아직까지는 이러한 확산을 억제하는 데 성공하고 있다. 불량국가들 또는 충분한 억지력을 갖지 못한 국가들이 핵 보유국가로부터 느끼는 위협이 이들을 핵무기를 보유하고 싶은 유혹에 빠지게 만들고 있다. 이런 가운데 한 가지 위안을 찾을 수 있다면 중국과 일본이 과거보다 훨씬 신중하고 협조적으로 바뀌었다는 점이다.
TMSI·정리=유세진 객원편집위원
MAJOR POWERS MUST SHOULDER BLAME FOR NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION
By William Pfaff
PARIS -- The main government destabilized by North Korea''s claimed nuclear explosion is clearly the government of the United States. Washington said it would prevent this from happening.
The Clinton administration negotiated with an opaque Pyongyang to exchange security assurances and qualified help in peaceful nuclear power development for a probably unreliable promise not to develop weapons. The Bush administration spurned negotiation, insulted Kim Jong-il and made empty threats.
However, this is only a step in what probably will be the eventual failure of the entire non-proliferation effort. That is the prospect so long as the five governments recognized in 1968 as legitimate possessors of nuclear weapons do not honor their Article VI commitments, under the non-proliferation treaty, to reduce and eventually eliminate their own nuclear arsenals. The North Korean test is a demonstration to Washington that it can''t keep and improve its own nuclear forces, and expect the NPT to survive.
An international system that allows only the original five nuclear powers -- now illegally joined by Israel, India, Pakistan and North Korea -- to possess these arms cannot last. The world now is on its way to a generalization of these weapons to any country that considers itself at risk from an existing nuclear state.
The promise of the five eventually to renounce the nuclear weapon was never convincing. Since then, the evidence is that none will do so. Certainly the United States will not. This destroys the utility and relevance of the treaty. North Korea even went to the trouble of formally withdrawing from the treaty in January 2003, after the Bush administration denounced Pyongyang.
The North Korean test and Iran''s supposed (if unconfirmed) intention to acquire nuclear weapons are reactions to what is seen as the threat of American intervention (to bring about ``regime change''''). The only value of a nuclear weapon to a small (or relatively weak) country is to deter attack or intrusion or interference by a more powerful country.
Nuclear weapons may not even be entirely convincing in that role, because their destructive power is disproportionate to their actual utility. This is a source of unpredictability, and hence of deterrence through uncertainty, but it is also an invitation to extinction if the enemy is sufficiently ruthless. The aggressor has to ask whether its victim can really afford a nuclear response to an invasion or other attack, because of the risk of massive retaliation.
On the other hand, even the more powerful attacker would pause at the threat that a nuclear reaction by its victim might cause a degree of casualties and damage that its own people (or even its own military forces) would find unacceptable. It must also consider international opinion. In the North Korean case, suppose that even a conventional American attack were followed by a Hiroshima-scale retaliation against Seoul (not only South Korea''s capital but the headquarters of American forces in the country). Who would have gained what?
Bernard Brodie, Alfred Wohlstetter, my former colleague Herman Kahn and other intelligent people spent the 1950s and 1960s trying to think of clever ways to use nuclear weapons to advance national objectives, with no great success.
If the enemy possesses nuclear weapons, no matter how ingenious the offensive tactics that are employed, the risk of failure or of overwhelming retaliation is usually unacceptably high. We may be thankful that the usefulness of nuclear weapons nearly always comes down to deterrence, certainly so for countries like North Korea or Iran. But that is all they want from them.
The Americans and Israelis calling for war with Iran talk about Iranian nuclear aggression, nuclear blackmail, or bestowing nuclear weapons on terrorists. None of this is serious. You don''t attack or blackmail other states unless you have what the nuclear planner calls an assured second-strike capability. That is, you have to be able to guarantee that even if your victim strikes back, you can still inflict unacceptable damage on him in retaliation: hence, that it is not worthwhile for him to respond.
Neither Iran nor North Korea is going to be able to do that for a very long time. You need hardened missile silos or submarines at sea -- the panoply of the Cold War.
As for giving nuclear weapons to terrorists: Since missiles and explosions can be traced back to their manufacturers, no matter who pulls the trigger, that is not a prudent course of action.
The world has undoubtedly been lucky to limit the spread of nuclear weapons to the extent that its has, since 1945. The non-proliferation treaty was a good idea, but the major powers did not sign it in good faith, and have not lived up to it.
The threats offered by the major powers to ``rogue states'''' -- or to any state lacking conventional defenses -- is an irresistible invitation to proliferation. The one good thing that can be said about the situation in which we now find ourselves is that the Japanese and Chinese governments are going to be even more careful, and more cooperative, than they were in the past.
By William Pfaff
PARIS -- The main government destabilized by North Korea''s claimed nuclear explosion is clearly the government of the United States. Washington said it would prevent this from happening.
The Clinton administration negotiated with an opaque Pyongyang to exchange security assurances and qualified help in peaceful nuclear power development for a probably unreliable promise not to develop weapons. The Bush administration spurned negotiation, insulted Kim Jong-il and made empty threats.
However, this is only a step in what probably will be the eventual failure of the entire non-proliferation effort. That is the prospect so long as the five governments recognized in 1968 as legitimate possessors of nuclear weapons do not honor their Article VI commitments, under the non-proliferation treaty, to reduce and eventually eliminate their own nuclear arsenals. The North Korean test is a demonstration to Washington that it can''t keep and improve its own nuclear forces, and expect the NPT to survive.
An international system that allows only the original five nuclear powers -- now illegally joined by Israel, India, Pakistan and North Korea -- to possess these arms cannot last. The world now is on its way to a generalization of these weapons to any country that considers itself at risk from an existing nuclear state.
The promise of the five eventually to renounce the nuclear weapon was never convincing. Since then, the evidence is that none will do so. Certainly the United States will not. This destroys the utility and relevance of the treaty. North Korea even went to the trouble of formally withdrawing from the treaty in January 2003, after the Bush administration denounced Pyongyang.
The North Korean test and Iran''s supposed (if unconfirmed) intention to acquire nuclear weapons are reactions to what is seen as the threat of American intervention (to bring about ``regime change''''). The only value of a nuclear weapon to a small (or relatively weak) country is to deter attack or intrusion or interference by a more powerful country.
Nuclear weapons may not even be entirely convincing in that role, because their destructive power is disproportionate to their actual utility. This is a source of unpredictability, and hence of deterrence through uncertainty, but it is also an invitation to extinction if the enemy is sufficiently ruthless. The aggressor has to ask whether its victim can really afford a nuclear response to an invasion or other attack, because of the risk of massive retaliation.
On the other hand, even the more powerful attacker would pause at the threat that a nuclear reaction by its victim might cause a degree of casualties and damage that its own people (or even its own military forces) would find unacceptable. It must also consider international opinion. In the North Korean case, suppose that even a conventional American attack were followed by a Hiroshima-scale retaliation against Seoul (not only South Korea''s capital but the headquarters of American forces in the country). Who would have gained what?
Bernard Brodie, Alfred Wohlstetter, my former colleague Herman Kahn and other intelligent people spent the 1950s and 1960s trying to think of clever ways to use nuclear weapons to advance national objectives, with no great success.
If the enemy possesses nuclear weapons, no matter how ingenious the offensive tactics that are employed, the risk of failure or of overwhelming retaliation is usually unacceptably high. We may be thankful that the usefulness of nuclear weapons nearly always comes down to deterrence, certainly so for countries like North Korea or Iran. But that is all they want from them.
The Americans and Israelis calling for war with Iran talk about Iranian nuclear aggression, nuclear blackmail, or bestowing nuclear weapons on terrorists. None of this is serious. You don''t attack or blackmail other states unless you have what the nuclear planner calls an assured second-strike capability. That is, you have to be able to guarantee that even if your victim strikes back, you can still inflict unacceptable damage on him in retaliation: hence, that it is not worthwhile for him to respond.
Neither Iran nor North Korea is going to be able to do that for a very long time. You need hardened missile silos or submarines at sea -- the panoply of the Cold War.
As for giving nuclear weapons to terrorists: Since missiles and explosions can be traced back to their manufacturers, no matter who pulls the trigger, that is not a prudent course of action.
The world has undoubtedly been lucky to limit the spread of nuclear weapons to the extent that its has, since 1945. The non-proliferation treaty was a good idea, but the major powers did not sign it in good faith, and have not lived up to it.
The threats offered by the major powers to ``rogue states'''' -- or to any state lacking conventional defenses -- is an irresistible invitation to proliferation. The one good thing that can be said about the situation in which we now find ourselves is that the Japanese and Chinese governments are going to be even more careful, and more cooperative, than they were in the past.
* opaque 불투명한, 우둔한
[ⓒ 세계일보 & Segye.com, 무단전재 및 재배포 금지]